Moreover, OsAP2-39 CPI-613 controls the ABA/ gibberellin balance in rice by regulation of both ABA biosynthesis and gibberellin metabolism in rice . The present study showed that OsAP2-39 can affect ethylene synthesis by regulating the expression of ACS and ACO genes. For direct transcriptional modulation of OsDERF1 on OsAP2-39, it is possible that OsDERF1 has multiple regulatory effects in plant development and drought response by controlling the balance of ABA, gibberellins and ethylene, transcriptionally integrating multiple hormone homeostasis in rice. Increasing amounts of research have shown that improved stress tolerance can be accompanied by reduced yield, biomass or plant growth under normal conditions . For instance, rice seedlings overexpressing OsNAC6 were smaller than controls and their reproductive yields were likewise lower than controls . OsMYB3R-2 overexpressing plants had shorter roots and retarded growth ; while the overexpression of Arabidopsis TINY showed shorter plant height, shorter hypocotyl elongation, and reduced fertility . In the present research, neither overexpression of OsDERF1 nor RI lines affect rice growth and yield, compared to Nipponbare , providing a cue for genetic/biotechnological modifications of stress-tolerant crops. Based on the above discussion, we suggest that ERF protein OsDERF1 as a transcriptional activator directly interacts with GCC box, resulting in the expression of rice repressors OsERF3 and OsAP2-39 . These repressors further suppress the expression of ethylene synthesis-related genes, possibly interacting with GCC box and DRE, thereby reducing ethylene production. The decreased ethylene production disorders the hormone balance, subsequently affecting osmotic adjustment and drought response in rice. Thus, the present study demonstrates for the first time that an ERF transcriptional complex modulates drought response through controlling ethylene synthesis. Cigarette smoke contains more than 1014�C16 free radicals/ oxidants per puff and is composed of,4700 chemical compounds, including a major aldehyde, acrolein. CS mediates pro-inflammatory effects by carbonyl and oxidative stress in the lung via the generation of reactive oxygen AZ 960 species and aldehydes, as well as through endogenous generation of ROS from inflammatory/ structural cells . Pulmonary inflammatory response due to the infiltration of macrophages and neutrophils in the interstitium plays a central role in the pathogenesis of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease . Furthermore, chronic CS exposure to mice leads to increased lung inflammatory response and airspace enlargement, which are characteristics of COPD/ pulmonary emphysema . Inflammatory cells release numerous mediators that can cause airway constriction and remodeling. These cells also produce proteases that can cause destruction of lung parenchyma leading to airspace enlargement .