Which would limit the number of substrates entering each particular pathway. Hence, the subsequent pathway enzymes may be more substrate promiscuous which would offer increased overall metabolic flexibility. CYP405A2 show higher preference for Ile than Val in vitro, which may serve to facilitate the suggested higher turnover of Ile-derived lotaustralin. It is the general concept that Zygaenidae originally fed on acyanogenic plants belonging to the Celastraceae and was dependent on de novo biosynthesis of the two CNglcs linamarin and lotaustralin for defense. Zygaena spp. later encountered and became adapted to cyanogenic plants belonging to the Fabaceae, such as L. corniculatus. They could probably employ these as food plants because they already had the enzymatic machinery and possessed the necessary morphological adaptations to handle and store potentially toxic CNglcs. Similarly, de novo biosynthesis of saponins and cardenolides by leaf beetles and CNglcs by Heliconius butterflies most likely facilitated colonization and subsequent sequestration from each of their respective food-plants. In analogy, we propose that the de novo CNglc biosynthetic pathway in Z. filipendulae was constitutively expressed before colonization of L. corniculatus. Thus, following the encounter with a cyanogenic food-plant, the larvae evolved the ability to regulate the pathway in dependence of the presence of CNglcs in the food-plant. By shifting from de novo biosynthesis to sequestration, the larva could probably preserve energy for primary metabolism and nitrogen for utilization in e.g. biosynthesis of the polymer chitin, a constituent of the integument. One possibility is that CYP332A3 and UGT33A1 are involved in other processes that to some degree correlate with the repression of the biosynthetic pathway for CNglcs, making their overall expression pattern similar to each other. For instance in vertebrates, many P450s and UGTs are involved in detoxification reactions and are often co-regulated. Indeed, based on proteomics data CYP332A3 and UGT33A1, but not CYP405A2, are also present in the major organs involved in detoxification, the excretory Malpighian tubules and the gut. This could indicate that these two enzymes have an additional LY2109761 function in detoxification. The strong expression pattern of UGT33A1 in multiple organs also agrees with a very diverse expression pattern of UGTs with regards to tissue specificity and ontogeny observed in insects in general. Chromatin structure governs genome function, including transcription, DNA damage repair, and replication. The chromatin structure, in its default state, limits the accessibility of DNA binding factors. So, in order for gene expression and DNA repair to take place, chromatin must open up for these factors. Chromatin remodeling complexes are known to play a major role in chromatin opening. Consequently, their activity and recruitment to chromatin must be tightly regulated for exercising proper genome functioning. These remodeling complexes contain multiple regulatory subunits. Thus, to understand the epigenetic regulatory mechanisms of these complexes, it is imperative to know the properties of their regulatory subunits. Several members of the actin family of proteins.